The Full Story

Hunting and Gathering

Archaeologists and anthropologists reconstruct past diets through various methods, including analyzing skeletal remains of humans, but also by studying ancient artifacts and examining what is preserved of food remains.

Human skeletal remains

Anthropologists study human skeletons to uncover clues about ancient diets, and one of the most revealing sources of information is the condition of the teeth. Dental health can reflect the types of food people consumed and how those foods were prepared. For example, individuals who relied on wild foods—such as hunted animals, gathered plants, and nuts—typically show flat, even tooth wear. This is because these foods, while tough or fibrous, contain little grit or debris that would cause uneven abrasion.

In contrast, the transition to farming introduced new dietary challenges. Cultivated grains and processed plant foods often contained tiny particles of grit from grinding stones, which became embedded in the food. As a result, people who consumed these early agricultural diets frequently developed angled tooth wear and heavy deposits of dental plaque. These patterns help researchers distinguish between hunter-gatherer and farming populations, offering valuable insights into how shifts in subsistence strategies affected health and daily life.

Stable isotope analysis

Anthropologists gain valuable insights into the diets of past populations through biochemical methods, particularly stable isotope analysis. This scientific technique examines the chemical composition of human bones and teeth to reconstruct dietary habits over a person’s lifetime. Scientists start by drilling a small piece out of a bone. In the lab they use acid to remove the mineral content of the bone and end up with the collagen – a protein that can then be analysed in a mass spectrometer for its isotopic composition. By analyzing the ratios of stable isotopes—especially carbon (δ¹³C) and nitrogen (δ¹⁵N)—researchers can determine not only what kinds of foods individuals consumed, but also where those foods may have originated.

The principle behind this method lies in the fact that different plants and animals have distinct isotopic signatures. When people consume these foods, the isotopic values are incorporated into their body tissues. By studying these values in skeletal remains, archaeologists can infer whether a person’s diet was primarily plant-based or animal-based, and in some cases, even identify specific food sources.

More specifically, carbon isotopes (δ¹³C) help distinguish between types of plants. For instance, C₃ plants such as wheat and rice have different isotopic signatures than C₄ plants like maize. Carbon isotopes can also differentiate between marine and terrestrial food sources. Meanwhile, nitrogen isotopes (δ¹⁵N) indicate an individual’s position in the food chain: higher δ¹⁵N values typically suggest a diet rich in animal protein, such as meat or fish.

The type of tissue analyzed also provides insight into different life stages. Tooth enamel reflects the diet during childhood, as it forms early and remains unchanged, while bone collagen represents dietary intake in the years leading up to death, since bone tissue remodels throughout life.

Through stable isotope analysis, anthropologists can piece together a detailed picture of ancient diets, offering a deeper understanding of how people lived, what they ate, and how they interacted with their environment.

Archaeological remains

Another important way anthropologists and archaeologists uncover information about ancient diets is through the examination of archaeological remains. These physical traces—ranging from bones and tools to plant residues and even fossilized waste—offer both direct and indirect evidence of what people ate and how they prepared their food.

Animal bones and teeth are especially informative. By analyzing these remains, researchers can identify which animals were hunted or domesticated. The size, age, and condition of the bones can reveal how animals were used—whether for meat, milk, labor, or secondary products like wool or hides.

Artifacts related to food preparation and procurement also provide valuable clues. These include fishing nets or hunting tools, and after the introduction of farming in the Neolithic also included pottery, grinding stones, cooking vessels and storage jars. The presence of use-wear traces on stone tools —such as scratches, polish, or edge damage—can indicate how tools were used, whether for cutting meat, grinding grains, or processing plants. Additionally, food residues like charred remains, starch grains, or lipid residues left on the surfaces of these tools can offer direct or chemical evidence of the types of food processed or cooked.

Plant remains, such as pollen, seeds, charred plant fragments, and phytoliths (microscopic silica structures from plants), are often preserved in soil layers at archaeological sites. These remains help identify the types of plants that were gathered, cultivated, or consumed, shedding light on agricultural practices, seasonal diets, and environmental conditions.

Finally, coprolites, or fossilized human feces, provide some of the most direct evidence of ancient diets. These rare finds can contain undigested food particles—such as seeds, bones, or shells—allowing researchers to reconstruct meals with remarkable detail and even detect parasites or gut microbiota.

Together, these diverse forms of evidence help build a rich and nuanced picture of how people in the past interacted with their environment to obtain, prepare, and consume food.

Archaeological context and modern analogues

Contextual analysis plays a crucial role in interpreting ancient diets by situating archaeological findings within their broader environmental and cultural settings. The location of a site helps researchers understand the natural resources available to its inhabitants, such as access to water, fertile land, or wild game. The cultural context, including burial practices, ritual objects, and settlement organization, can reveal the symbolic or social importance of certain foods. Additionally, establishing a chronological framework through dating techniques allows archaeologists to track changes in dietary habits over time, reflecting shifts in environment, technology, or cultural practices.

Finally, studying modern hunter-gatherer societies provides valuable insights into the potential food sources, foraging techniques, and dietary strategies that may have been used by ancient populations. These contemporary examples help researchers better interpret archaeological evidence by offering real-world models of how people interact with their environment to obtain and process food.

By combining these methods, archaeologists and anthropologists can piece together a detailed picture of past diets, revealing not only what people ate but also how food was produced, prepared, and consumed, and the cultural significance of food in past societies.